淤地坝之水的权利问题
胡德胜*
(郑州大学 法学院,河南 郑州 450001) 摘要:由于气候和历史原因,中国黄土高原自然条件恶劣,水土流失严重,沟壑纵横。淤地坝具有多种社会、生态和经济功能,在促进黄土高原地区的发展和生态环境保护及改善方面发挥了巨大作用。淤地坝之水既是一种社会物品,也是一种经济物品,是淤地坝能够发挥功能的关键条件。对与之相关的水人权、生态环境用水权和水的财产权利如何进行界定和保护,在中国的法律和政策层面上存在一些矛盾、不协调或者模糊的问题,需要以促进黄土高原地区的可持续发展为基础价值取向,通过完善相关法律和政策,公平合理地予以解决。
关键词:淤地坝; 水权利; 水人权; 生态环境用水权; 财产权
一、淤地坝及其功能
中国黄土高原是世界上最大的黄土沉积区。它海拔1000~1500米,位于黄河流域中流区域,东起太行山、西至位于青海省的日月山,南自秦岭北缘、北到万里长城,横跨山西省全境和陕西、甘肃、宁夏三省大部,占有青海、河南和内蒙古三省(区)部分地区,面积达64万平方公里。除少数石质山地外,高原上面覆盖着深厚的黄土层,黄土厚度一般在50~80米之间,最厚处达150~180米。气候上,高原地区以干旱和半干旱为主,四季分明,较为干燥;降雨集中,且多以暴雨出现,年均降水量200~700毫米。在黄土高原地区,土壤和植被地带性分布十分明显。土壤有褐土、垆土、黄绵土和灰钙土等。植被主要是森林草原、草原和风沙草原。由于黄土孔隙度较高,透水性强,垂直节理发育,具沉陷性,加上缺乏植被保护,夏季雨量集中且多暴雨,造成水土流失严重(水土流失面积达43.4万平方公里),黄土高原地表支离破碎、沟壑纵横。[1](P14-18) 长度超过0.5公里的沟道就达27万多条。[2]
(一)淤地坝的概念
四百多年前,黄土高原上有居民或者利用自然滑坡坍塌、或者自行修筑,于沟壑中修建坝体,拦截雨季水中泥沙以使其淤积形成农田,是为淤地坝之由来。据记载,明代隆庆三年(公元1569年),在陕西省子洲县黄土洼,因自然滑坡、坍塌,产生天然聚湫一处,后经人加工而形成了高60米、淤地800余亩的淤地坝。人工修筑的历史记载,最早见于山西省《汾西县志》有关明代万历年间(公元1573年-1619年)的一段记载:“涧河沟渠下湿处,淤漫成地易于收获高田,值旱可以抵租,向有勤民修筑”。 [1](P39-40)淤地坝修筑在清代引起官方重视,得到推广。根据《续行水金鉴》卷十一记载:清代乾隆八年(公元1743年),陕西监察御史胡定在奏折中呈“黄河之沙多出自三门以上及山西中条山一代涧中,请令地方官于涧口筑坝堰,水发,沙滞涧中,渐为平壤,可种秋麦”。1949年后,特别是近几年来,经过国家水利部门总结、规范、示范和推广,淤地坝建设得到了快速发展。据调查统计,经过50多年的建设,黄土高原地区现有淤地坝11万余座,淤成坝地450多万亩,可拦蓄泥沙210亿M3。[3]
现代所称淤地坝是指在沟道中修筑的以淤地和发展生产为主要目的,兼顾拦泥、防洪、蓄水和生态保护的水土保持工程设施。
(二)淤地坝的作用和功能
基于黄土高原的地理条件,淤地坝在增加耕地面积、改善农村生产条件、防止水土流失、涵养水土资源、防治洪涝灾害、解决饮水问题以及保护和改善生态环境,进而促进该地区减贫工作和社会经济发展等方面具有巨大的生态、社会和经济功能。
1、生态功能
(1)防止水土流失。淤地坝通过阻挡水流的冲击作用,使水中泥沙沉淀下来,从而防止水土流失。调查表明,大型淤地坝每淤一亩坝地,平均可拦泥沙8720吨,中型6720吨,小型3430吨。尤其是典型坝系,拦泥效果更加显著。[3]
(2)涵养水土资源。淤地坝阻挡或者延缓水流的通过,可以促进和增加地表水渗入地下。在形成的土地周边进行植树、种草等活动,不仅能够美化当地环境、改变当地地貌,而且更重要的是涵养了水土资源。
(3)防治洪涝灾害。由于淤地坝的建设通常是一级接一级,对因雨季降水集中或者暴雨而在短时间内形成的大量地表径流,它能够控制或者延缓它的流动和向较大河流的汇入,从而有效地防治洪涝灾害。
(4)解决水资源时间分布严重不均问题。淤地坝具有直接的存水功能,并且能够通过促进和增加地表水渗入地下而补充地下水。因此,它能够将雨季的过多雨水存储起来,从而有助于解决黄土高原地区水资源在时间分布上的严重不均和水资源十分短缺的问题。
(5)促进还林还草,吸收及转换二氧化碳。肥沃耕地的增加有助于促进退耕、退牧、还林、还草,推动大面积植被的恢复、生态环境的改善,进而通过光合作用而吸收和转换大量的二氧化碳。
2、社会功能
(1)解决饮水困难问题。由于以干旱和半干旱气候为主且较为干燥,黄土高原许多地区是严重缺水,造成人畜饮水困难。淤地坝中储存的水可以用来供应人畜饮水,解决或者缓解人畜饮水困难,有助于水人权的实现。
(2)解决供生产自用粮食土地的灌溉问题。黄土高原地区人均耕地少,主要是生产用以解决农村人口的自用粮食问题。农村人口获取足够的水来灌溉生产自用粮食的土地,也是水人权的一项重要内容。
3、经济功能
(1)增加优良耕地面积。在一般情况下,淤地坝建成3至5年后,就可以在坝内形成一片坝地。由于坝地主要是由小流域坡面上流失下来的表土层淤积而成,含有大量的牲畜粪便、枯枝落叶等有机质,因此,坝地土壤肥沃、水分充足、抗旱能力强,是高产稳产的耕地,能够增加经济收入。
(2)促进农村经济全面发展。淤地坝增加了基本农田,有助于发展高效农业、改变单一的粮食生产结构和发展农林牧副渔多种经营。另外,淤地坝成为连接沟壑两岸的道路,改善了交通条件。
淤地坝的上述功能是一个统一的整体,水是这些功能得以充分发挥的关键和前提条件。淤地坝之水是淤地坝的必生之物,是一种珍贵的资源,其利用中必然要发生相应的水权利关系,并可能产生一些问题需要由法律和政策予以解决。
二、淤地坝之水的权利问题
(一)淤地坝之水的权利产生
2002年《农村土地承包法》第3条第2款规定:“农村土地承包采取农村集体经济组织内部的家庭承包方式,不宜采取家庭承包方式的荒山、荒沟、荒丘、荒滩等农村土地,可以采取招标、拍卖、公开协商等方式承包。”第46条第1款规定:“荒山、荒沟、荒丘、荒滩等可以直接通过招标、拍卖、公开协商等方式实行承包经营,也可以将土地承包经营权折股分给本集体经济组织成员后,再实行承包经营或者股份合作经营。”根据第47条和48条的规定,一个农村集体经济组织的荒山、荒沟、荒丘、荒滩等土地,可以由该集体经济组织以外的单位或者个人承包。2007年《物权法》第124条第2款规定:“农民集体所有和国家所有由农民集体使用的耕地、林地、草地以及其他用于农业的土地,依法实行土地承包经营制度。”第125条规定:“土地承包经营权人依法对其承包经营的耕地、林地、草地等享有占有、使用和收益的权利,有权从事种植业、林业、畜牧业等农业生产。”据此,个人、家庭、农村集体经济组织、非农村集体经济组织都可能因承包黄土高原上的耕地、林地、草地或者其他用于农业的土地,以及荒山、荒沟、荒丘、荒滩等土地,在承包土地上修建淤地坝,从而产生淤地坝之水的权利和利益问题。
《农村土地承包法》第16条第1款规定,承包方“依法享有承包地使用、收益和土地承包经营权流转的权利,有权自主组织生产经营和处置产品”。《物权法》第125条规定:“土地承包经营权人依法对其承包经营的耕地、林地、草地等享有占有、使用和收益的权利,有权从事种植业、林业、畜牧业等农业生产。”单从这两条(款)规定来看,淤地坝之水似乎可以由淤地坝权利主体自由处置。
但是,《农村土地承包法》第8条第1款又规定:“农村土地承包应当遵守法律、法规,保护土地资源的合理开发和可持续利用。”第17条规定承包方承担下列义务:“(一)维持土地的农业用途,不得用于非农建设;(二)依法保护和合理利用土地,不得给土地造成永久性损害;(三)法律、行政法规规定的其他义务”。第46条第2款规定:“承包荒山、荒沟、荒丘、荒滩的,应当遵守有关法律、行政法规的规定,防止水土流失,保护生态环境。”
这就产生了问题:作为淤地坝的一种必然产物,淤地坝之水是否是承包方的生产的产品?承包方是否有权自主处置?
(二)淤地坝之水的权利矛盾
2002年《水法(修订)》第2条第2款规定:“本法所称水资源,包括地表水和地下水。”第3条规定:“水资源属于国家所有。水资源的所有权由国务院代表国家行使。农村集体经济组织的水塘和由农村集体经济组织修建管理的水库中的水,归各该农村集体经济组织使用。”第7条规定:“国家对水资源依法实行取水许可制度和有偿使用制度。但是,农村集体经济组织及其成员使用本集体经济组织的水塘、水库中的水的除外。”第25条第2款规定:“农村集体经济组织或者其成员依法在本集体经济组织所有的集体土地或者承包土地上投资兴建水工程设施的,按照谁投资建设谁管理和谁受益的原则,对水工程设施及其蓄水进行管理和合理使用。”第48条第1款规定:“直接从江河、湖泊或者地下取用水资源的单位和个人,应当按照国家取水许可制度和水资源有偿使用制度的规定,向水行政主管部门或者流域管理机构申请领取取水许可证,并缴纳水资源费,取得取水权。但是,家庭生活和零星散养、圈养畜禽饮用等少量取水的除外。”2006年《取水许可和水资源费征收管理条例》对取水许可证制度进行了细化。其第4条第1款:“规定下列情形不需要申请领取取水许可证:(一)农村集体经济组织及其成员使用本集体经济组织的水塘、水库中的水的;(二)家庭生活和零星散养、圈养畜禽饮用等少量取水的;(三)为保障矿井等地下工程施工安全和生产安全必须进行临时应急取(排)水的;(四)为消除对公共安全或者公共利益的危害临时应急取水的;(五)为农业抗旱和维护生态与环境必须临时应急取水的。”
认真分析上述规定,可以发现下列问题:
第一,淤地坝的所有者、经营者或者管理者是否是具有农村集体经济组织或者其成员的身份地位,对淤地坝之水的权利有所影响。如果淤地坝的所有者、经营者或者管理者是农村集体经济组织或者其成员,他们对依法在本集体经济组织所有的集体土地或者承包土地修建的淤地坝中的水,可以进行合理使用。
第二、淤地坝所在的沟壑绝大多数是只有在雨季乃至暴雨时才有水的沟道。这些沟道是否属于河流?如果不属于河流,笔者认为应将存储有水的淤地坝纳入水塘的范畴。如果属于河流,有蓄水能力的淤地坝就应归入水库的范围。
第三,在将存储有水的淤地坝纳入水塘范畴的情况下,产生的问题是(1)淤地坝之水是否属于地表水而是水资源?因为中国没有对地表水这一概念像其他国家或者地区(如南非和澳大利亚的南澳大利亚州)一样在法律上作出明确的界定。[4] (2)法律对农村集体经济组织的水塘中的水的使用有明确规定,但对农村集体经济组织以外的单位和个人的水塘中的水使用却没有直接规定。进一步的问题是:农村集体经济组织以外的单位和个人的水塘中的水是否为国家所有?如果为国家所有,对其利用就应该遵守国家的相关法律规定,但是目前又缺乏明确的规定;如果不为国家所有,就是私人所有,所有权人得依法占有、使用、收益或者处置。
第四、在将有蓄水能力的淤地坝归入水库范围的情况下,法律对农村集体经济组织修建管理的水库中的水的管理和使用有明确规定。问题是:在淤地坝不是农村集体经济组织修建管理的情况下,如果淤地坝的所有者、经营者或者管理者不是农村集体经济组织或者其成员,他们对淤地坝之水享有什么样的权利?是否应当适用取水许可制度和水资源有偿使用制度的规定?
第五、“合理使用”的含义不明确。淤地坝的所有者、经营者或者管理者:(1)是否有权允许或者不允许不需要申请领取取水许可证的取水者从其淤地坝中取水;(2)对不需要申请领取取水许可证的取水者从其淤地坝中取水的,是否有权收取一定数额的金钱?(3)对其他需要申请领取取水许可证的取水者,为农业灌溉、植树种草、从事渔业、从事服务业、工业生产的需要而从淤地坝中取水的,如果收取一定数额的金钱是否属于合理使用?
笔者注意到,近几年来,国家水利等部门制定了一些有关或者涉及淤地坝的部门规章或者规范性文件(水利部《关于黄土高原地区淤地坝建设管理的指导意见》和《黄土高原地区水土保持淤地坝工程建设管理暂行办法》,国家发展和改革委员会、水利部联合颁布的《水土保持工程建设管理办法》等),一些省份也出台了地方性法规、政府规章或者规范性文件(如《山西省黄土高原地区水土保持淤地坝工程建设管理细则》、《内蒙古黄土高原地区水土保持淤地坝工程建设管理细则》、《宁夏回族自治区水土保持淤地坝工程建设管理细则》、《甘肃省黄土高原地区水土保持淤地坝工程建设管理实施细则》、《陕西省淤地坝建设管理办法》等)。但是,对于上述问题,都没有予以解决。
三、解决淤地坝之水权利问题的建议
联合国有关机构的研究表明,水资源危机主要是由于水资源管理方面的原因而造成的。[5] (Chapter 2)[6](P12)无论是法学专家,还是水文及水资源学学者,亦或水资源综合管理研究者都认为,法律应当在水资源开发、利用和保护中发挥重要作用。[7](P2)“水权利的稳定性是水法的一项重要原则”,而且,“稳定水权利的法律制度是向水资源开发和保护领域投资的一种经济刺激措施”。[8](P29)在中国这样一个水资源十分缺乏的国家,特别是在黄土高原这样一个严重缺水的地区,需要建立或者加强有关淤地坝之水的权利法律制度,从而保证水资源的可持续、合理、公平和有效的利用。
(一)以科学发展观作为解决问题的理念和出发点。
前已述及,淤地坝具有多种生态、社会和经济作用和功能。科学发展观是结合中国具体国情对可持续发展理论的中国化。针对淤地坝之水的权利问题,笔者认为,为了改善黄土高原的生态环境,促进当地社会经济的可持续发展,应当以科学发展观、建设环境友好型社会作为解决问题的基本理念和出发点。具体而言,对淤地坝之水的利用行为只要在客观上能够保护和改善黄土高原的生态环境、吸收和转换温室气体而有利于控制全球气候变暖,在不影响基本人权的情况下,就应当对相关权利予以保护。
(二)原则上,对淤地坝所有者、经营者或者管理者,不再区分是否是农村集体经济组织或者其成员,它们对淤地坝之水权利的一律平等。
(三)明晰淤地坝的财产权,并以此作为确定淤地坝之水相关权利的基础。
实践证明,建设淤地坝是黄土高原地区最有效、最根本和最重要的水土保持措施,不仅具有重要的战略地位,而且已经取得了很好效益、发挥了巨大作用。例如,在黄河下游河床清淤1立方米泥沙,需投资十几元,而在上中游,淤地坝每拦1立方米泥沙,所需投资还不到1元。[3] 但是,如果财产权的主体不明确,财产就容易遭受侵害,就会造成投资、管理和维护的积极性不足。因此,必须明晰淤地坝的产权关系。
首先,必须明确淤地坝的所有权。任何单位和个人在其所有、管理或者承包经营的土地上修建的淤地坝,其所有权归修建单位或者个人所有。但是,承包经营土地上的淤地坝所有权因受承包经营合同的限制,是一种有限制的所有权。
其次,允许对淤地坝所有权的权能进行适当分离,主要是允许占有、使用、收益三种权利中的一种或者多种权能与所有权分离。
(四)将有较大蓄水能力的淤地坝纳入水库范围进行管理。
尽管目前黄土高原上的绝大多数沟壑只有在雨季乃至暴雨时才有水,但从实践情况来看,因科学修建和管理淤地坝,有些沟壑已经出现常年或者每年大多数时间水流不断的现象。因此,从制度稳定性和长远角度出发,宜将沟壑认定为河流;不过,应当对之制定不同于一般河流的规定。例如,可以通过河流或者河道分级而对淤地坝进行特别规定。相应地,需要将有蓄水能力的淤地坝纳入水库范围进行管理。另外,淤地坝在设计、建设、管理和维护方面,需要,实际上也是参照水库大坝进行的。
(五)合理确定淤地坝之水的分配次序。
分析起来,淤地坝之水主要可以用于满足如下需求:(1)实现水人权的需求。水人权应当包括两个方面,一是人畜用水,二是灌溉用于生产自用粮食的土地的用水。(2)满足生态环境用水权的需求。结合黄土高原的生态环境状况,需要从宽泛的角度理解生态用水,把林业、牧业、渔业、果园业、生态旅游业等有利于保护和改善生态环境的用水也纳入到生态环境用水的范畴。(3)所有者、经营者或者管理者利用淤地坝之水在所有或者承包经营和管理的土地上进行各种合理利用的需求;(4)满足所有者、经营者或者管理者或其成员之外的工业、服务业的用水需求。
笔者认为,在分配原则上,应当依次满足以上四种需求。实践中,前三种需求往往会存在一定的交叉。例如,所有者、经营者或者管理者以及其成员需要淤地坝之水实现其水人权,这就发生第一种和第三种需求之间的一些重合。在所有者、经营者或者管理者利用淤地坝之水发展林业、牧业、渔业、果园业、生态旅游业等有利保护和改善生态环境的产业时,会发生第二种和第三种需求之间的一些重合。
但是,除了次序上要求外,满足第四种需求还应当符合另外两个条件。一是,所有者、经营者或者管理者在防止水土流失、保护生态环境方面已经采取了足够措施后,淤地坝中还有多余的水。也就是说,所有者、经营者或者管理者不能置水土流失、生态环境恶化于不顾,而让所有者、经营者或者管理者或其成员之外的工业、服务业使用淤地坝中的水,自己收取一定数量的金钱。二是,应当将所有者、经营者或者管理者或其成员之外的工业、服务业对淤地坝之水的用水需求,纳入取水许可制度和水资源有偿使用制度。
(六)允许所有者、经营者或者管理者对其他人使用其淤地坝中的水收取一定数量的金钱。
建设、管理和维护淤地坝都需要人力、财力、物力的投入。因此,如果不允许所有者、经营者或者管理者对其他人使用其淤地坝中的水收取一定的金钱,是对其财产权利的不当和非法剥夺,不利于淤地坝的建设,不利于保护和改善黄土高原的生态环境,危及可持续发展。就收取的金钱的性质上讲,笔者认为属于使用水利工程的服务费用。当然,对于他人用于满足水人权的用水,价格不宜过高。但是,对于用于满足其他需求的用水,则应当允许双方自由协商确定价格。
参考文献:
[1] 黄河上中游管理局. 淤地坝概论[M]. 北京:中国计划出版社, 2005.
[2] 姚芃. 我国水土流失形势严峻 “项目保护伞”比较强硬[N] . 法制日报2007-6-29.
[3]中央农村工作领导小组办公室、水利部水土保持司、水利部水土保持监测中心、水利部发展研究中心、水利部黄河水利委员会. 黄土高原区淤地坝专题调研报告(2002年12月20日).
[4] 胡德胜. 水资源的法律界定——我国与南澳大利亚州、南非的比较研究[J]. 水利发展研究,2004,
[5] UNESCO, et al., The United Nations World Water Development Report: Water for People, Water for Life, UNESCO Publishing/Berghahn Books, Paris, 2003.
[6] UNESCO, et al., The United Nations World Water Development Report: Water, A Shared Responsibility, UNESCO Publishing/Berghahn Books, Paris, 2006.
[7] Hu, D., Water Rights: An International and Comparative Study, IWA Publishing, London, 2006.
[8] Solanes, M. and Gonzalez-Villarreal, F., The Dublin Principles for Water as Reflected in a Comparative Assessment of Institutional and Legal Arrangements for Integrated Water Resources Management, Global Water Partnership, Stockholm, 1999.
The Water in Silt Dams——A Property-Rights-based Perspective
Desheng HU*
Executive Summary
1. An Introduction to Geologies in the Loess Plateau
The Loess Plateau in northwestern China is the largest continuous loess deposit area in the world. With the altitudes of 1,000-1,500 m and an area of 640,000 km2 and being located in the central Yellow River Basin, it covers the whole Shanxi Province, most of Shaanxi Province and Gunshu Province as well Ningxia Autonomous Region, and some parts of Qinghai Province and Henan Province as well as Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Although existing rocky hills in a few regions, the Plateau is covered with a very thick layer of loess, the thickness of which is in general from 50 to 80 m although in some area from 150 to 180 m. Loess Plateau belongs to arid or semi-arid region with an average annual precipitation from 200 to 700 mm, which mainly comes in storm in summer. Due to over reclamation over centuries which has led to little coverage of plants together with (a) the characteristics of loess soil, i.e., retaining water effectively, easily sink, and (b) concentrating summer storm, the Plateau has been under severe soil erosion, and now is largely covered with more than 270,000 gullies (usually dry ) and many fragile loess slopes. This situation has caused many further issues, such as poverty, destruction of ecosystems and well-known soil sediment in Yellow River.
2. Silt Dam and Its Functions
A silt dam is a barrier that is built across a gully, usually dry, in order to stop the silty water from intense rainwater flowing, to allow silt being settled at the bottom, and to let silt farmland be formed in the most natural way. The earliest historical written record of man-made silt dams can be found in the History of Fenxi County (which is located in Shanxi Province). It reveals that, during the Wanli Period (1573-1619) of Ming Dynasty, diligent villagers built silt dams for obtaining silt land. Although the silt dam is built initially for getting plain and fertile farmland, silt dams can play, at least, the following functions in the Loess Plateau,
(a) stopping silt and preventing silt from flowing into the Yellow River, and naturally decreasing sediment of the river, slowing down the increase of the bed of the River, and further lessening the flood danger caused by the river;
(b) stopping silt and forming silt land which has good fertility, and further enhancing the crop yield, thereby increasing the income of the villagers;
(c) harvesting water in wet seasons and making the rational and effective utilisation of water resources possible;
(d) using the water collected by the silt dam to resolve the difficulty of access to drinking water for people and livestock, for irrigating cultivated land, or for planting trees or grass;
(e) supplying water for ground aquifers and making the utilisation of groundwater sustainable;
(f) creating good quality ecosystems in the surrounding areas or improving the ecosystems of the silt dams, and further improving the ecosystem in the middle stream of the Yellow River, and,
(g) using them as bridge roads by connecting each side of the gullies, and further improving the communication in the region.
Due to the benefits above, the Chinese government has been paying special attention to the construction of silt dams since 1949, particularly since 2001. According to an official report, by 2002, 112,045 silt dams (36,816 in Shaanxi, 37,820 in Shanxi, 6,630 in Gansu, 17,819 in Inner Mongolia, 4,936 in Ningxia and 3,877 in Qinghai, accounting for 96.3% of the total) had been built, and 4.5 million mu (about 300,000 hectares) of silt farmland had been formed, so 21 billion m3 of silt had be stopped.
3. Problems in Utilising of Water in the Silt Dam
3.1. Problems coming from Rural Land Contractual Farming Law and Property Law
According to article 3(2) of Rural Land Contractual Farming Law of the PRC 2002 and article 124(2) of Property Law of the PRC 2007, individuals, families, rural collective economic organisation or other groups may construct silt dams in the land (including cultivated land, forestland, grassland and other lands, such as barren mountains, waste ditches, barren hills and waste beaches, etc.) that they have rights to utilise under the land contracts to which they are a party.
Article 16(1) of Rural Land Contractual Farming Law provides that, the contract-undertaking party shall enjoy the right to the use of, and profits and interests from the contracted land, and to the circulation of the operation of the contracted land; enjoying the decision-making power to organize production operation and dispose his products. Regarding Property Law, article 125 stipulates that, a holder of the contract-undertaking right is entitled to occupy, use and benefit from the land (including cultivated land, forest land, grassland, etc.) , and to be engaged in agriculture such as crop planting, afforestation, animal husbandry etc.
However, according to article 8(1) of Rural Land Contracting Law, “[t]he contracting of rural land shall be conducted in accordance with the laws, rules and regulations, and in conformity with the protection of rational development and sustainable utility of land resources. The contracted rural land shall not be used for non-agricultural construction without through lawful approval”. Further, article 17 reads as follows,
The contract-undertaking party shall bear the following obligations:
(1) Sustaining the agricultural purpose of use of the contracted land rather than utilizing such land for the purpose of non-agricultural construction;
(2) Protecting and rationally using the contracted land according to laws, rather than imposing perpetual damage to such land; and,
(3) Other obligations as stipulated by laws, or administrative rules or regulations.
Also, article 46(2) requires that, “[c]ontracting for barren mountains, waste ditches, barren hills and waste beaches shall be undertaken in accordance with relevant laws, administrative regulations, and shall be in conformity with the prevention of soil erosion and protection of ecological environment”.
The problems with the water in the silt dam are: whether or not the water in the silt dam belongs to the products of the contract-undertaking party? If yes, whether the contract-undertaking party may dispose it freely?
3.2. Problems coming from Water Law
The following articles of Water Law of the PRC 2002 may affect the utilisation of water in the silt dam,
Article 2(2) The water resource referred to in this Law includes surface water and groundwater.
Article 3 Water resources shall be owned by the State. The ownership of water resources shall be exercised by the State Council on behalf of the State. The water of a pond owned by or of a reservoir built and managed by a rural collective economic organisation shall be utilised by the organisation.
Article 7 The State shall implement a water-drawing license system and a paid use system on water resources in accordance with the law, with the exception of the water of ponds or reservoirs belonging to rural collective economic organisations utilised by these organisations or their members. The competent department of water administration under the State Council shall be in charge of the organisation and implementation of these two systems in the country.
Article 25(2) When rural collective economic organisations and/or their members, in accordance with the law, invest in the construction of waterworks on the corresponding land owned by the rural collective economic organisations and/or on contracted land, the waterworks and/or the water stored in these waterworks shall be managed and reasonably utilised according to the principle of “the investor manages and benefits from the waterworks”.
Article 48(1) Any unit or individual who draws water directly from rivers, lakes or ground aquifers shall, in accordance with the State provisions relating to the water-drawing license system and the paid use system on water resources, apply to the relevant competent department of water administration or basin administrative authority for a water-drawing license, pay the water resources fee regulated, and then obtain a water-drawing right. However, the drawing of water for a household or for livestock, a small quantity for poultry drinking or other small quantity water drawings, are exempted.
After analysing these above provisions, the following problems could be identified,
(a) Whether or not the owner, operator or manager of a silt dam being a rural collective economic organisation or its member has impact on their right to the water in the silt dam.
(b) Whether or not a gully across which a silt dam is built belongs to river? If yes, the silt dam is a reservoir; if not, then a pond. They are subjected to different regulations.
(c) Further, if a silt dam is defined as a pond, then, (i) whether or not the water in it belongs to surface water? There is no definition for surface water in Water Law 2002. (ii) if yes, although there are provisions on the water of a pond owned by a rural collective economic organisation, there is no provision on the water of a pond owned by individuals or units other than rural collective economic organisations.
(d) Also, if a silt dam is defined as a reservoir, although there are provisions on the water of a reservoir built and managed by a rural collective economic organisation, there is no provision on the water of a reservoir built and managed by individuals or units other than rural collective economic organisations.
(e) What is reasonable utilisation? There is not a clear delimitation, and the issues are, (i) whether or not the owner, operator or manager of a silt dam is entitled to allow others to draw water from the silt dam? (ii) if yes, whether or not he/she/it is entitled to charge the others for water that is drawn? (iii) whether or not is reasonable for he/she/it to charge the others for water that is drawn under a water-drawing license?
4. Recommendation on Problems
It is well recognised that the water crises or water shortage has mainly caused by unreasonable management, and water law and policy should play a vital role in the development, utilisation and protection of water resources. In the Loess Plateau, such a region with a severe shortage of water and the popular poverty existing, the mechanism on the water in silt dams should be improved.
(a) Scientific development or sustainable development should be taken as base in dealing with the above questions, and the human right to water, the environmental right to water (the environmental water needs) and the water for development should be taken into consideration.
(b) Equal principle, in general, should be applied to all owners, operators or managers of silt dams.
(c) Property rights on the water in silt dams should be clearly delimited.
(d) The silt dams with storage capacity to some extent should be defined as reservoirs and are subjected to regulations on reservoirs.
(e) The water in the silt dams should be allocated in a appropriate order, i.e., giving the human right to water and the environmental right to water priority.
(f) The owner, operator or manager of a silt dam should be allowed to charge others for drawing water from the silt dam in due process.